Are solar-powered water kiosks a “game changer” for rural water services?

Sector experts often label solar-powered kiosks as a game changer for rural water supply as they provide service improvements by design. Importantly, they reduce the physical and time effort required from water users – especially women and girls – to fetch water, while being relatively cheap and easy to install, operate, and maintain. The hope is that the improved service offered will stimulate water demand, thereby generating more revenue, with positive sustainability implications for service delivery. This vignette reports evidence from Mali where UDUMA, a professional rural water service delivery company, replaced handpumps with solar-powered water kiosks.

The research reveals that while solar kiosks can improve revenue generation compared to handpumps, water use is still influenced by seasonal rainfall. This translates into seasonal revenue shortfalls, challenging the provider’s viability. These findings suggest caution in assuming solar kiosks are a definitive solution to nuanced and dynamic water user behaviours in rural Africa.

1. UDUMA is trialling solar technology …

UDUMA, a private provider of reliable rural water services, operates at large scale covering more than 300 rural waterpoints in the south of Mali. Significant shortfalls in user payments at handpumps suggested that users were not fully satisfied with the services being provided.

To test the technology in real settings, UDUMA upgraded 15 rural waterpoints from manual handpumps to small solar-powered kiosks. The provider selected the sites to reflect the diverse geographical, socio-economic, and environmental conditions across its service area.

2. … and we are conducting longitudinal analyses…

We are tracking three performance metrics (collection efficiency, daily volume of water used, and monthly revenue) over time to explore how users respond to this infrastructure upgrade. With the same water tariffs in place throughout the technology shift, we can compare these metrics across infrastructure types and seasons.

a. The solar powered waterpoints were popular…

“The water is fresh, and the service at the solar kiosk is good. I agree to pay per bucket, that works. Before with the handpump, I came here, too. But the price bothered me. Pumping was really tiring!” (Female user, Bougoula).

“With the solar kiosk, it is really easy. You pay, you get the water, and you leave after only one minute or so. But with the handpump, you had to work hard – and this for the same price!” (Male user, Kebila)

Upgrading a standard handpump to a solar kiosk offers tangible service improvements which were appreciated by users. The longitudinal data reveal a shifting pattern for collection efficiency: with solar-powered kiosks, users pay for the water they use. As soon as a handpump is upgraded to a solar-powered system, the ratio of water paid increases drastically. 

The high payment ratios for solar-powered kiosks contrast with the payments registered at handpumps. Collection efficiency for handpumps experienced a steady down-ward trend, illustrating the fundamental challenge of enforcing volumetric payments when users must invest in time and physical effort for accessing water.

b. …but are used less when it rains.

“In the hot season, I fetch about ten buckets per day at the solar kiosk. In the rainy season, I use less – maybe five buckets. There is the rainwater, and water is abundant in our wells.” (Female user, Bougoula)

Our monitoring reflects a high degree of seasonal variation in daily water demand affecting both infrastructure types. Usage is significantly lower during Mali’s annual rainy season (during July to September). It seems that people have a preference for rainwater when it is available, despite potential health risks echoing previous findings on seasonal interactions of water demand and rainfall (Hoque and Hope, 2020; MacAllister et al., 2020; Thomas et al., 2019; Thomson et al., 2019).

Since user payments are based on a volumetric tariff, monthly revenues also register a seasonal pattern. While solar-powered waterpoints generate on average higher monthly revenues, they face substantial revenue shortfalls during the rainy season. 

Furthermore, there is variation across the sites. This reflects that, while the solar upgrade led to a consistent improvement in collection efficiency, daily water usage varies across waterpoints. To achieve viable services, ways to stimulate use of safe water throughout the year are needed.

3. … to inform rural water policy and practice

So, are solar kiosks the game changer for rural water services? This research suggests that infrastructure improvements act as an enabler for unlocking volumetric payments – a major step towards achieving financially viable water services in rural areas. However, solar-powered kiosks remain subject to seasonal variation in user demand, emphasising that solar kiosks are not a definitive solution to the nuanced and dynamic water user behaviours in rural Africa. Finally, coupling infrastructure investments with reliable service provision is fundamental: without appropriate institutional arrangements, infrastructure investments will not provide a lasting answer to the rural water challenge.