Groundwater and the political between the drops: Urban clean water shortage in Java, Indonesia

For several years, seasonal drought episodes alert about risks of water scarcity in Java. Earlier this year, the minister for National Planning explained that residents of three of the largest islands of the Indonesian Archipelago should prepare for increased drought.  

At the same time, Covid-19 pandemic shed light on the persisting lack of access to clean water for many urban poor.

Is Java becoming increasingly drier, and if so, why? What are we really talking about when we speak about water scarcity in Javanese cities?

One may ask, what causes recurring droughts in a seemingly water-rich environment? 

Among fast answers to the “why” questions, one is likely to come across explanations that foreground unpredictable weather patterns due to climate change, population growth, and urbanization. After all, Java experiences a dry season with especially severe lack of rains in July and August, is the most densely populated city of the country ranking 4th in population size, and is also called ”the island of mega-urban regions” [7].

As reasonable as these answers may seem, we find that these explanations only conceal part of the story, and can even be misleading.

Let us take a step back in time. 

Since the 18th century, Semarang has been growing around its port, which was a strategic location to move commodities within the Dutch East Indies and to Europe.

The first efforts to organize clean water access for residents date from 1841, when the Dutch Colonial Government dug a dozen artesian wells to supply parts of the city, especially in the European neighborhoods and near the Dutch military buildings.  

Well drilling was mostly a response to cholera outbreaks (particularly deadly in 1910) and a fear of malaria. 

In 1913, Indonesian residents were connected to a piped network distributing spring water from Semarang's hilly areas [8].

The piped water network developed according to the economic means and priorities of the Colonial Administration. This means that with an urban population increasing steadily, the water needs of Indonesian residents are far from being met. As a result, most depended on water vendors, especially near the coast, where surface and groundwater tasted brackish, and on dry uphill areas [8].

“Problems related to water in Semarang persisted in the 20th century. At that time many complained about water sources drying up [...]. As a result, the villagers had to walk very far to town; collect water from artesian wells, then bring it home and use it sparingly for drinking water needs. Simultaneously, the supply of drinking water from artesian wells also began to feel inadequate. In fact, due to the lack of water supply from artesian wells, the Dutch colonial government even issued calls stating that tapping from artesian pipes could only be used for public purposes.” (Ardhianie and Kausan, upcoming [8])

Yet, artesian water was made useful to private parties that successfully turned water into a luxury product. For instance, Hygeia, the first company for soda water and mineral water, was flourishing. The black-cat logoed factory belonged to T. F. Tillema, a Semarang-based pharmacist and businessman much concerned with hygiene and otherwise very vocal in advocating for more ambitious intervention by the Dutch administration to renovate poor urban settlements he deemed unhygienic. In its first year of production alone (1901), Hygeia produced 500,000 bottles issued from spring sources [8]. 

Advertisements such as this poster from circa 1925 suggest an association of clean water with europeanness, whiteness, and modernity. Here, the Dutch brand bottling Semarang water crafted a poster most likely directed towards a Dutch audience, claiming ”Dit is “JE MERK” (This is YOUR BRAND) and featuring the recently built Eiffel Tower.

If we consider on the other side the expansion of the piped water network in Semarang, it becomes clear that these constructions have lagged more acutely in the following decades. From WWI to the Indonesian War of Independence, the successive national and regional administrations had little money to allocate to water infrastructures.

In their book about water access in Semarang, Nila Ardhianie and Bagas Yusuf Kausan note that many Indonesian residents rightly preferred to use shallow wells instead of accessing the piped water network - a preference already observed and deplored by the Dutch ‘hygienist’ Tillema - having well understood that its development is not oriented towards them but primarily meant for European elites [8].

In the early decades of Indonesian independence, Semarang water company (PDAM) experimented with filtering surface and spring water but shortages persisted, affecting even residents connected to the piped network due to dry springs in uphill areas. As a result, since the mid-1970s, the drilling of artesian or deep wells has multiplied all over the city, completing the dependence of residents, businesses, and public institutions on groundwater.

Up until today, the Semarang households with access to piped water have been dissatisfied because of the poor quality of the water, its brackish taste, and its lack of reliability.

Despite poor performances, the price of water accessed through PDAM was raised by 240% in 2002. This is to invest, expand the coverage of its services, and gain new customers. In 1995, the PDAM was only able to meet the clean water needs of about 35% of urban residents; in 2007, it was 55,8%; and the company claims to have achieved 64% coverage in 2016 [8].