Implementation realities of two irrigation modernization projects in India and Indonesia

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Patterns of water governance

South AsiaSouth-East Asia

Capacity buildingTechnologies adoptions and technical fixes

Irrigation

‘Modernization’ is an attractive paradigm that promises to leverage new technologies and management systems to improve the functioning of irrigation systems. This vignette looks at two such modernization projects in India and Indonesia supported by international financial institutions – the Gondi irrigation project in Karnataka, and the Macan irrigation system in West Java. The projects intend that modern and participatory management of an upgraded infrastructure would result in a long-lasting, high performing irrigation system with greater transparency and accountability. This vignette looks at the ground realities.

Photo 1: Arecanut plantations in the Gondi command area

The Gondi irrigation system takes off from a weir on the Bhadra river and irrigates an area of approximately 4,600 hectares. Built in colonial times, it had fallen into disrepair and the water barely reached the middle reach of the canal network. The canal system was modernized between 2014-19 under the Asian Development Bank supported Karnataka Sustainable and Integrated Water Resources Management Investment Programme.¹ Arecanut, a lucrative cash crop, has replaced rice and sugarcane as the dominant crop in the region.

Photo 2: The Macan weir at the starting point of SS Macan

The Saluran Sekunder Macan (SS Macan) is a secondary irrigation system that takes off from the Macan weir in Subang and irrigates approximately 10,500 hectares. The irrigation system connects to the East Tarum Canal, and continues downstream towards the Java coast in the north. SS Macan is being modernized as a pilot in the Strategic Irrigation Modernization and Urgent Rehabilitation Project (SIMURP) supported by the World Bank and Asian Infrastructure and Investment Bank.² The region predominantly grows rice.

Photo 3: Non-integration or bifurcation of tanks adjoining the canal

The major proportion of the projects comprise rehabilitating the physical infrastructure. In Gondi, the main canal and distributaries were lined with concrete. The irrigation department and the farmers agree on the fact that the civil works were not well-planned and executed. The main problem was in the rehabilitation design which did not account for the man-made irrigation ponds (known commonly as ‘tanks’) adjoining the canals. The canal lining simply discontinues when a tank is adjoining a canal – and then resumes beyond the tank. The sediments, reeds and grass that accumulate in the tanks enter the canal system and block the flow of water in several places. At the time of this research (2021-22), barely 2 years since the completion of the modernization works, farmers were reporting that once again water failed to reach the tail end – comparable to the pre-modernization experience.

Photo 4: Cracks on the canal lining completed in 2019

Cracks already showing up in the canal lining. The irrigation officials claim that the work was completed in a rushed manner to meet project timelines. Some farmers also felt that the contractor compromised on the materials used. The farmers claim that the contractor was reluctant to address these issues during the maintenance period.

Photo 5: Parts of the ‘rehabilitated’ SS Macan canal system

As of February 2023, the physical rehabilitation works of the secondary canals in SS Macan were considered to have been completed. However, it was evident that the entire canal network was not rehabilitated. In some sections, the lining was clearly not done in recent times.

In many stretches of the Macan canal, the quality of the rehabilitation works was visibly sub-standard. Slabs of concrete have gone missing or fallen off from the canal lining.

Photo 7: Gates in Gondi

Apart from the canal lining, a key infrastructure component is the gate. The gates of the Gondi system are often blocked and difficult to operate.

Photo 8: ‘Missing’ gates

In SS Macan, most of the gates were rusty, broken or ‘missing’. This could be either for accessing more water, or to sell the gate as scrap metal. Irrigation officials and farmers agreed that both reasons were possible. There were varying accounts on whether the gates would be rehabilitated.

Image 9: Screenshot of the web-based portal of the Gondi Irrigation System

One of the factors of the poor performance of irrigation systems in developing countries is the absence of regular and periodic maintenance. Both projects propose an Asset Management System to ‘modernize’ the management of the upgraded infrastructure. In Gondi, a web-based portal was created with a baseline inventory as the groundwork for an ‘Asset Management Plan’.³ However, the portal is not used by anyone. Project reports mention that a ‘Operation and Maintenance’ manual has been drafted.⁴ Neither the irrigation officials nor the farmers appeared to be aware of its existence.

Photo 10: Gondi main canal

There is no change in the Operation and Maintenance practices in Gondi. The maintenance neglect is already visible in the canal system.

Photo 11: ‘Newly rehabilitated’ infrastructure in SS Macan

In Indonesia, as a precursor to an ‘Asset Management’ system, the operator periodically evaluates the condition of the infrastructure. This evaluation is not publicly available. Nor do water users associations participate in this process. Moreover, it is not linked to the budget allocation for regular or periodic O&M.

Photo 12: Telemetry device installed along the Gondi canal

‘Modern’ elements like telemetry systems are supposed to have been installed in both the projects. There were varying accounts on how they were accessed. Some senior officials in both Gondi and SS Macan said that they had access to the information. Neither field level officers nor farmers have access to this information. It was not clear how the information system increased trust or accountability in operating the irrigation system.

Photo 13: Meeting of the WUCS Federation in Gondi, attended by an irrigation official

Finally, both projects emphasised the role of water users’ associations. In Gondi, 11 Water User Cooperative Societies (WUCS) were established or ‘revitalized’ at the level of distributaries. 1 WUCS-Federation was set up for the whole irrigation system. The community engagement during the project was robust, and continued after the project ended. However, the WUCS reported that they did not have access to adequate resources and many of the newly formed associations expressed concern about long-term viability.

Photo 14: Farmer showing a section of the FIC in Gondi that he had participated in rehabilitating

In Gondi, rehabilitation works below the outlet level, like laying field irrigation channels (FIC), pipes and field drains, were awarded directly to the WUCS. The project consultant mediated and oversaw the process. The quality, relevance and resources of the field level works were appreciated by the farmers and irrigation officials.

Photo 15: ‘Training pack’ given to P3As

In Indonesia, the Perkumpulan Petani Pemakai Air (P3A) is constituted at the level of the field level distributaries. 123 P3As have been formed and legally registered in SS Macan. The group of P3As within a sub-secondary system constitute a GP3A (corresponding to a WUA federation). Largely corresponding to the 17 sub-secondary systems within SS Macan, 15 GP3As have been constituted. The functioning of P3As in Indonesia seems to be uneven. Relatively better-functioning WUAs seem to have higher membership – two of the better functioning WUAs had around 35-50 members. On the other end of the spectrum, many WUAs appeared to be struggling to remain relevant within a year of being set up. They had difficulty attracting members. For instance, two such WUAs had only 7-10 members. The P3As do not have clearly defined roles, or any resource base. The P3A in SS Macan were not involved in any rehabilitation works.

The experience of the two projects reflects a stark difference between the modernization vision and implementation realities. The component of rehabilitating the physical infrastructure is the dominant project activity. Most of this is implemented in a top-down manner – with very little involvement of communities. After rehabilitation, the operation and maintenance reverts to status quo. Mechanisms for periodic evaluation are neither institutionalised nor participatory. While there is excitement among policy actors about modern information and operation systems, it is not clear how these translate in reality. For farmers and field level officials, they remain distant ideas. Internationally supported projects include components of participatory irrigation management. However, the long-term sustainability of such ‘project based’ community participation appears weak. The ‘modernized’ system does not function any differently from its pre-modern state.